Wu (物) usually denotes an existence in the universe that has a form or an image. In general, the word has three different meanings. First, it refers to any concrete existence, encompassing all natural and man-made objects, all organisms and human beings. Second, it covers interpersonal matters and activities such as taking care of one’s parents, entering politics, or managing state affairs. In this sense, wu means “matter.” Third, the word sums up all existing physical and social matters, generally called “everything.”
This refers to a worldview or lifestyle that seeks to reconcile differences and contradictions among things. In “On Seeing Things as Equal”, Zhuangzi(369?-286 BC) analyzes the unpredictable nature of the world to reveal that different or opposing things are inherently interconnected. In striving to understand the world, one should therefore first of all identify the interconnectedness among all things in the world, see all as equal, and abandon personal preferences, likes and dislikes. In this way, one’s heart can be above all material things and free from their constraints and influences, and the differences and contradictions among things will no longer burden one’s mind or one’s life.
A person’s creative impulse is triggered by one or more externalities, and after conceptualization and artistic treatment, this results in a work of art. Such externalities include both natural sights and scenes from life which can be directly sensed. Ancient Chinese believed that creation resulted from externalities which evoked a desire to create, and that works of art and literature were the result of combining externalities with subjective thinking. This term emphasizes the fundamental idea that artistic creation is rooted in life.
This is a form of the existence of things when the boundary between things is broken and one thing transforms into another. The term “transformation of things” comes from Zhuangzi, in which the author Zhuangzi (369?-286 BC) illustrated the concept in the fable Zhuangzi Dreamed of Becoming a Butterfly. He believed that the boundary and difference between oneself and others, between in a dream and being awake, and between all things can be broken. Consequently, one may achieve the transformation between one thing and another. However, if one holds onto the difference between oneself and the others, one cannot achieve the transformation of things, as if in a dream. If one is bent on transforming things, one may still fall into a dream.
The term means to understand how we should conduct ourselves through our contact with things. “Studying things to acquire knowledge” comes from The Great Learning, a section of The Book of Rites. Together with “being sincere in thought,” “rectifying one’s mind,” “cultivating oneself,” “regulating one’s family well,” “governing the state properly,” and “bringing peace to all under heaven,” they are collectively known as the “eight essential principles.” Knowledge is acquired through the study of things. Since the two are closely related, they are sometimes together called “study and acquire.” Throughout history scholars have had varied understandings of the meaning of the term. Some emphasize a thorough inquiry of principles in contact with things. Others stress personal practice in order to master all kinds of moral conduct and skills. Still others consider their intentions as things, thus reforming their innermost thoughts as studying things.
This term means that one should be broad-minded and care for all things and people. Ancient Chinese believed that with its topography and other natural features being generous and peaceful, the earth sustained all things in the world, allowing them to grow and develop in keeping with their own nature. Men of virtue model themselves on the earth, and just like the earth, care for all things and fellow human beings with open heart and virtue. This embodies the pursuit of moral cultivation and harmony among people and between people and nature. It represents the Chinese views and ideals on governance and human relationship, which were inspired by the formation and features of mountains and rivers in China. Together with the notion of constantly exerting oneself for self-improvement, it forms the fundamental character of the Chinese nation.
This term means to find out the truth of things, and act accordingly to succeed in what one does. Kaiwu (开物) means to reveal the truth of things and understand their intrinsic relations and rules. Chengwu (成务) means to use proper methods to do things successfully according to their intrinsic relations and rules. This was a perception and guide to action that the ancient Chinese learned from The Book of Changes and everyday life, which they used to understand the world, change the world, and serve themselves. This concept represents a fundamental principle of social science.
This idea was first put forward by Zhang Zai (1020-1077)of the Northern Song Dynasty, who held that people and things are all created by the vital force of heaven and earth, and thus are similar in nature. He advocated love for all people and things in the world, and his view transcended the old anthropocentric viewpoint and aimed to reach harmony between oneself and other human beings as well as between oneself and other creatures and things. It is the same as the idea that a true gentleman has ample virtue and cares for all things. This notion is an important part of the School of Principle of the Song and Ming dynasties.
The term means to have love for the people, and cherish all things in the world. Here wu (物) includes plants and animals, while ai (爱) implies using them in a measured and appropriate way. This was first proposed by Mencius (372?-289 BC) who differentiated natural emotions as: a love for close family, a broad compassion for other people, and a sense of cherishing for plants and animals. The love could be close or distant, but a person of virtue always begins with love of close relatives, which then extends to other people and eventually to all things in the world. Though this feeling starts within the family, it should extend beyond it, even beyond the human race to include plants and animals, to become a broad love. The goal is to achieve harmony within oneself, with others and with nature. Zhang Zai’s (1020-1077)concept that “all people are my brothers and sisters, and all things are my companions” is very similar.
This term refers to the creative process through which a writer interacts with subject matter and gives free rein to his imagination. During the process, he projects onto real objects his mental sensations and imaginings, and endows them with an aesthetic tone. Conversely, his imaginary sensations and imaginings are given concrete expression by real objects. The free interaction between mind and subject matter, transcending the limitations of space and time, creates a superb artistic work depicted in language. The term originated in the words of “taking advantage of the circumstances to let your mind wander freely” in Zhuangzi. Later, this idea was systematically developed by Liu Xie(465?—520) in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons during the Southern Dynasties to describe imaginative contemplation. The term stresses the importance of interaction between the mind and the poetic subject matter as well as free imagination in the process of artistic creation. It demonstrates the process of thinking in artistic creation and succinctly summarizes the underlying features of aesthetic appreciation and freedom in artistic creation.
Qi (气), or vital force, consists of two opposing aspects. According to the Song- dynasty philosopher Zhang Zai(1020-1077), everything in the world consists of qi. On the one hand, qi is a whole and one thing;on the other, it consists of pairs of contradictory states, such as the real and the unreal, motion and stillness, concentration and diffusion, and clarity and opacity. Without interaction between the opposite states, the whole cannot exist. Likewise, without the whole, there can be no interaction between the opposite states. Contradictions within the whole constitute the source of changes of qi and all things made of qi.
This statement suggests that the beauty of literature and art lies in the unity and harmony of diverse elements. It became an important principle in ancient Chinese theories on literature and art, and facilitated the development of literature and art.
The heart, a vital organ of life, underpins one’s emotions, awareness, and value judgments. Different from the ears, eyes, nose, and mouth, which sense the outer world in a passive way, the heart is capable of thinking and performing intellectual and moral evaluations on the basis of analyzing and sorting out what these organs have sensed. Mencius (372?-289 BC) believed that the heart consists of four aspects: compassion, deference, sense of shame or detestation, and conscience. Preserving and expanding one’s good heart is the central aim in practicing moral teachings. According to Daoism, a serene and uncluttered heart is the highest state for a human being, much like a peaceful pool of still water. Such calmness is the way in which the heart can capture the essence of all things in the world.