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This term refers to the music of a state that is about to disintegrate. Later, it also refers to decadent and immoral music. The Confucian view was that music of a state on the verge of collapse tended to be dejected and demoralizing. As the downtrodden people endured immense suffering, their music and poetry were invariably full of sorrow and bitterness. If the ruler failed to wake up to the reality, the fall of his state was imminent.
Musical sounds, or simply music, are artistically rhythmical sounds flowing forth from one’s stirring emotions. Ancient Chinese often made a distinction between musical sounds and plain sounds. Sounds created by a natural environment are plain sounds, while those created when emotions well up in one’s heart is music. A single sound is called sheng (声), different sounds that come together are called yin (音); when these sounds beautifully fit together, they are called music (yue 乐). Ancient Chinese believed that musical sounds derive from one's inner motions, and that the music of a country or a region reflects the popular sentiments and the social mores there. Hence Confucian scholars believed that art and literature demonstrate both virtues and flaws in a country's governance and therefore play the role of moral education.
This refers to popular folk music in history, as opposed to formal ceremonial music. The term, originally “the music of Zheng and Wei,” referred to music from the states of Zheng and Wei during the Spring and Autumn and the Warring States periods. Unlike stately, grand and highly structured classical music, the music of Zheng featured free-flowing melodies and a wealth of variations, with lyrics that often spoke of the love between men and women. Confucius （551-479 BC） felt that works of this sort gave free rein to personal emotions and lacked purity in ways of thinking, that they were not conducive to educating people through etiquette and music, and should therefore not be permitted. Many scholars subsequently used “the music of Zheng” to refer to lowbrow arts, but others considered these tunes to be folk songs which were a form of popular culture, a source of artistic creation and a complement to highbrow arts.
Confucian scholars believed that music interacts with both society and its political evolution; it also reflects the rise and decline of a state’s political strength and changes of social customs. If a state suffers from political corruption and social turmoil, its music and poetry will be full of resentment and anger. Hearing such music and poetry, the ruler must promptly review his governance and correct abuse of power so as to avoid downfall.
The term refers to a kind of classical music in China. Noble and pure, it was the music used by kings in ancient times when worshipping heaven, earth, and ancestors, receiving congratulations from other quarters of the world, or holding feasts and major ceremonial activities. Chinese classical music often eulogized the royal court’s accomplishments； its melodies were tranquil and stately, its wording elegant and tasteful, and its performance of song and dance followed explicit codes of etiquette. Rulers of all dynasties used this kind of music as an effective means to instruct their people and promote civic virtue. As a courtly tradition, the music was necessarily conservative. However, throughout history the assimilation of elements of folk song and dance, as well as the music and dance of foreign lands, inevitably led to innovation. Thus, it maintained throughout the ages the highest levels of musical excellence. After the Tang Dynasty, this kind of music spread to other Asian countries such as Japan, Korea, and Vietnam, becoming a constituent part of their musical culture.
It is originally a term in ancient Chinese music. It has two meanings： 1) The refined and pure music encouraged by Confucian and official circles; sometimes it was also a general term for the five notes of ancient music gong, shang, jue, zhi, and yu. 2) Examples of the finest poems and songs. Confucian scholars believed that the content and music of The Book of Songs were the best and most refined, and thus were set as the models for zhengsheng, or the finest poetry. Gao Bing(1350-1423) of the Ming Dynasty named his collection of carefully selected Tang poems A Selection of Finest Tang Poems in an effort to present the finest and purest examples of different styles of Tang poetry for later generations.
Confucian scholars believed that music interacts with both society and its political evolution; it also reflects the rise and decline of a state’s political strength and changes of social customs. Music education fosters good governance and social stability. In an age of peace and stability with enlightened governance and harmony, its music and poetry are characterized by serenity and joyfulness. “Music of an age of good order” also refers to some eulogies in The Book of Songs.
Yue (乐) is one of the six arts of ancient times, often mentioned together with li (礼 rites / social norms). In contrast to external rules and rites, music touches the emotions and thus can affect human behavior. However, not all music counts as the Confucian yue which must have the effect of making the listener calm and measured so as to willingly behave in accordance with social norms, and thus engage harmoniously with others. Yue is often associated with other forms of ceremonial actions; it is one important way of maintaining proper human relations and encouraging better social practices and customs.
In ancient China, music, together with poetry, was a way to conduct political education. Reviewing music education in the Zhou Dynasty, the Confucian scholars before the Qin-dynasty unification of China at the time concluded that music could transform social and cultural practices, stir up one’s inner emotions, and cultivate a good character. On this basis, they developed a comprehensive Confucian theory of music and music education. Subsequently, both “music education” and “poetry education” became important subjects in the official school system, forming a key part of early Chinese ritual and music culture.
This term is an example of Confucian literary thinking. Confucian scholars believed that music gave expression to people’s thinking and emotions, so a country’s music reflected whether government integrity was upheld, whether people enjoyed prosperity, and whether the social atmosphere was amiable and sincere. According to Zuo’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals, during his diplomatic mission to the State of Lu in the Spring and Autumn Period , Prince Jizha of the State of Wu learned about the governance of various vassal states and regions at the time by listening to their music performed by the people of Lu. This should be the origin of the term “assessing governance by listening to music.” This concept first emerged in the Qin and Han dynasties, which removed the boundary between art and government and made artistic aesthetics a part of public life. It gave expression to Confucian literary thinking which was based on governance and ethics and added a political and ethical dimension to the ancient Chinese literary and art theory.
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