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All under heaven belongs
to all the people in the world; a country belongs to all the people in the
country. “All under heaven” can here be understood as the country or highest
sovereign power of the country. The ancients regarded all under heaven as belonging
neither to a single person nor to a single family but to all the people.
Whoever acted according to morality and justice and was good to the people of
all under heaven, such a person was qualified to possess and rule all under
heaven. This implies a concept of human rights bestowed by heaven and
governance by virtue. In a modern context, this can be understood in the
following way: the world belongs to all the people of the world – every country and every
person have the right to take part in government.
This term referred mainly to all the land under the name of the Son of Heaven and the right to rule on such land. The ancient Chinese held that the rule of senior officials was over their enfeoffed land, and that of dukes and princes was over feudal states. The rule of the Son of Heaven was over all the land. Literally, tianxia (天下) means “all under heaven.” It actually refers to all the territory embracing the enfeoffed land and feudal states under the rule or in the name of the Son of Heaven, as well as all the subjects and the right to rule. The term has later evolved to refer to the whole nation or the whole world.
Family-state referred to the land owned by feudal lords and officials in ancient China. The land of a feudal lord was called “state” and the land of an official was called “family.” In ancient China, family, clan and country shared common structural features, all founded on the basis of blood relationships. This is the so-called “commensurability of family and state.” Family-state later referred to the entire territory of a country. In modern times, the term is also used to denote a polity encompassing a territory, a people, and a government.
The term is an abbreviation of an expression meaning public governance and support for the people. Jing (经) means managing state and social affairs in an orderly manner; ji (济) means helping people who are in difficulty. This dual-pronged approach to governance is aimed at making the nation and society prosperous and ensuring that the people live in peace and contentment. The concept of jingji (经济) embodies the goals and principles followed by traditional Chinese intellectuals in the pursuit of scholarship and learning, and reflects their commitment to apply learning to the service of the country and for the benefit of the people. In modern times, the term is used to mean “economy,” namely, social activities that create, transfer or realize value, and satisfy people’s material and cultural needs.
The term means to save and help all people through upholding truth and justice. Dao (道) here refers to truth and justice, and also to particular thought or doctrine. Ji (济) means relieving or helping people out of difficulties or sufferings. Tianxia (天下) refers to everything under heaven, and particularly all people. Therefore, this phrase contains two meanings. First, the value of any particular Dao depends on whether it serves the interests of the people. Second, people of virtue, and intellectuals in particular, should apply Dao they have learned to serve the people and use the ancient classics they have studied to meet present needs. Much like the idea of “studying ancient classics to meet present needs,” this notion of “supporting all people by upholding truth and justice,” represents the ultimate goal and ideal character of the traditional Chinese intellectuals in their pursuit of knowledge. It also embodies the compassion and moral standards of the traditional Chinese intellectuals as they pursue and uphold truth, care about the livelihood of the people, and take upon themselves the responsibility for the world.
The view that ordinary people also share responsibility for the fate of the country originated with the famous late Ming- and early Qing-dynasty thinker Gu Yanwu（1613-1682）. He stated that the ruler and his officials were in charge of the state apparatus, but guarding all under heaven was the responsibility of every individual, no matter how lowly they may be. In pre-modern China, all under heaven referred to the whole territory of China ruled either directly or nominally by the Son of Heaven. By “state” Gu Yanwu, however, meant something entirely different: the state only refers to one imperial house, while “all under heaven” refers to the whole of the Chinese nation and Chinese civilization. The modern Chinese thinker Liang Qichao （1873-1929）built on this idea and put it in more general terms stating that “survival of a nation is the responsibility of every individual,” turning it into a clearer and more forceful statement. It was subsequently quoted by so many statesmen and thinkers that it became a household phrase. Ever since, this saying has had tremendous influence in arousing the patriotic spirit among the people of China and making them assume responsibility for the fate of their country.
To rule a state, use the methods for governing a state. To rule a country, use the methods for governing a country. Guanzi （？-645 BC） held that a ruler must not use the methods for governing a clan to rule a town, nor use the methods for governing a town to rule a state, nor use the methods for governing a state to rule a country. One must change one’s methods of governance according to differences in the area under one’s rule. One must broaden one’s vision and mind as the area under one’s rule expands. In modern language, the “state” could be interpreted as a country, and the “country” as the world.
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