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This is the system in which officials were selected through different levels of examinations. After Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty（541-604）reunified China in 581, he abolished the system of selecting officials on the basis of family background or moral character. In 605, the first year of the reign of Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty（569-618）, the system to select officials through imperial civil examinations was officially established. From then on, examination subjects, content, and recruitment standards varied from dynasty to dynasty. The jinshi exam was the most difficult of imperial civil examinations,and was always the most revered by scholars. Since the Yuan and Ming dynasties, examination content had been based on the Four Books and the Five Classics and had to be answered in the form of the stereotyped “eight-part” essay and refer to Commentaries on the Four Books and other classics. In 1905 Emperor Guangxu of the Qing Dynasty （1871-1908）issued an edict abolishing the imperial civil examination system. For 1,300 years since the Sui Dynasty, the imperial civil examination system was the main method for selecting officials, which had a broad and profound influence on Chinese society. It hastened the transformation of aristocracy-based politics to bureaucracy-based politics and had multiple functions such as educating people, selecting officials, choosing talent through examinations, social stratification, and carrying forward the traditional culture.
This term refers to the traditional way through which men were selected and appointed to government offices. Designed to achieve an ideal state of rule, the method worked to select and recommend people with outstanding virtue and talent into the system of political power and put them to official posts, where they took charge of the governance of the country. Although the mechanism varied from dynasty to dynasty, it always emphasized a person’s moral integrity, ability, wisdom, and family background. It basically ensured that social elites had vertical mobility in the system of political power, and reflected the concepts of “rule of man” and “rule of virtue.”
Classical academies were cultural and educational institutions that existed in China from the Tang and Song dynasties through the Ming and Qing dynasties. They were established either by the public or the government to serve the multiple purposes of education, research, and library service. Their origins were Buddhist monasteries and private libraries in the Tang Dynasty. Classical academies flourished in the Song Dynasty. In the early years of the Southern Song Dynasty, Zhu Xi (1130-1200), Zhang Shi (1133-1180), Lü Zuqian (1137-1181), Lu Jiuyuan (1139-1193) , and some other scholars established academies that served as teaching and research centers of their respective schools of thought. The academies were independent of government schools and were located mostly in tranquil and scenic places. Under the supervision of learned Confucian scholars, the academies pursued academic freedom and innovation. Teachers taught by both precept and example, and laid stress on shaping their students’ moral character, rather than encouraging them to win degrees in the imperial civil examination system. By the end of the Southern Song Dynasty, however, the academies became increasingly government-oriented and were linked with the imperial civil examination system. The rise and decline of the academies was in harmony with the rise and decline of the School of Principle during the Song and Ming dynasties. In 1901 the Qing government ordered all the academies be changed to schools in modern sense. Having existed for more than 1,000 years, the academies greatly helped develop traditional Chinese culture and education, and convey Chinese culture abroad.
The imperial academy was the highest educational institution and educational administrative department in feudal China. The term first appeared in the Western Zhou Dynasty, but the first imperial academy was not officially established until 124 BC during the reign of Emperor Wu （156-87 BC） of the Han Dynasty. Teachers of the imperial academy were called “grand academicians” (literarily “scholars of broad learning”). They were well versed in Confucian classics, had rich teaching experience, and possessed both moral integrity and professional competence. Their students were called “students of the imperial academy” or “students of the grand academicians.” At its peak the imperial academy had 10,000 students. The central governments of all subsequent dynasties, including the Ming and Qing, had an imperial academy or a similar institution of education, usually located in the capital. It had different names and systems in different dynasties. The imperial academy, the top institution of learning run by the central government, along with local institutions of education and private schools, formed a complete education system in ancient China. They were significant in disseminating the Confucian classics and ancient China’s mainstream values with Confucianism as its main school of thought.
This term refers collectively to the four Confucian classics: The Analects, Mencius, The Great Learning, and The Doctrine of the Mean. The Great Learning and The Doctrine of the Mean originally were two sections of The Book of Rites, but before the Tang Dynasty they did not attract much attention. Following the revival of Confucianism which began in the Tang and Song dynasties, through the advocacy of Han Yu (768-824) and Li Ao (772-836) of the Tang Dynasty, Cheng Hao (1032-1085), Cheng Yi (1033-1107) and Zhu Xi (1130-1200) of the Song Dynasty, The Great Learning and The Doctrine of the Mean were given new meaning. Their standing was gradually elevated, and they were regarded just as important as The Analects and Mencius. The four were then collectively known as the Four Books. Commentaries on the Four Books, written by Zhu Xi, established the dominant position of the Four Books, which formed the foundation for the neo-Confucian scholars of the Song and Ming dynasties. The Four Books became the source from which the neo-Confucian scholars drew inspiration to further their learning, and thus exerted a profound influence on the development of Confucianism.
The term refers to the five Confucian classics: The Book of Songs, The Book of History, The Book of Rites, The Book of Changes, and The Spring and Autumn Annals. In the pre-Qin period, the term “Six Classics” was used, referring to The Book of Songs, The Book of History, The Book of Rites, The Book of Music, The Book of Changes, and The Spring and Autumn Annals. The Book of Music, did not exist in written form, hence people often used the term “Five Classics” during the Han Dynasty. After Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (156-87 BC) established the title of “Academician of the Five Classics,” study of these works became the foundation of Chinese learning, culture, and thought. In terms of content, the Five Classics each has its own focus; for instance, The Book of Songs deals with aspirations, and The Book of History chronicles events. Different in focus but complementing each other, they form an integral collection of classics. Throughout history, Confucian scholars added significant meaning to these classics with their interpretations of the original texts. The Five Classics comprise traditional Chinese culture’s fundamental understanding of world order and values, epitomizing the concept of dao.
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