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Literally, this term means the rules and orderliness of heaven and earth. According to Zuo’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals, Zichan (?-522 BC) of the State of Zheng proposed the concept to explain the essence and justification of rites. Zichan believed that the movements of heaven and earth followed eternal rules that created a consistent and rational order. Man too should imitate this in word and deed in an orderly, rational, and proper way. The constraints that rites place on human behavior, and the resulting social ethics and harmony are all manifestations of these laws of nature. The expression later came to mean anything that is proper, or any reasoning that is justified.
The basic meaning of yi (义) is “reasonable” and “proper.” It has two extended meanings. One is the proper basis and standard for people’s actions. The other is to adjust one’s words or deeds to meet certain standards, under the guidance of moral judgments. Scholars in the Song Dynasty used li (理) or “principles of heaven” to interpret yi, and considered yi to be the reasonable standard defined by the “principles of heaven,” and hoped that people’s words and deeds would fall in line with the “principles of heaven.”
Li (礼) is a general term for social norms which regulate an individual’s relationship with other people, everything else in nature, and even ghosts and spirits. By setting various regulations about ceremonial vessels, rituals, and systems, rites define an individual’s specific status and corresponding duty and power, thereby differentiating between people in a community in terms of age, kinship, and social status. With such differentiations, the rites determine the proper position of each individual, thus achieving harmony among human beings, and between humanity and everything else in nature.
Jing (经),which means the constant, and quan (权), which means the temporary, are terms used in the historical discourse of Chinese philosophy referring to a pair of philosophical concepts concerning the permanent and temporarily changing aspects of dao. The constant is the normal manifestation of human relations and daily life. It is thus the normal way that should be observed. It has normative functions and significance. The temporary means a change of the function of dao to suit circumstances or to meet needs of the day. In special circumstances, to follow the constant may result in deviation from dao. When this happens, a flexible way, that is, the temporary, may be adopted. The temporary seems to deviate from dao, but it actually conforms to requirements of dao in a flexible manner. The application of the constant or the temporary in different circumstances is determined by one’s keen understanding and mastery of dao.
Dao operates in accordance with natural conditions of all things. This idea first appeared in the book Laozi, according to which “natural” means the natural state of things. Dao creates and nurtures everything, yet it does not command anything. In political philosophy, the relationship between Dao and natural things implies that between the ruler and the people. The rulers should follow the natural requirements of Dao, which places limits on their power, and govern by means of non-interference to allow the people and affairs to take their own natural course.
This term means one should not only have a good command of the basic rules that govern things, but also know how to deal with exceptional situations or problems in a flexible manner. It suggests that one should not just adhere to principles, but also act according to circumstances. Chang (常permanence) and bian (变change) are two opposing concepts in ancient Chinese philosophy. The nature of things that decides what they are, and their basic rules or general principles that are relatively stable are called chang (permanence); but when it comes to specific situations or ways to deal with them, they are different and change in different circumstances, thus they are called bian (change). Relative to change, permanence is what endures within change. Permanence is fundamental while change is a deviation. Therefore, one needs not only to have a good command of the basic rules and general principles of things, but also know how to apply these rules and principles in a flexible manner according to objective circumstances. The mastery of both permanence and change reflects ancient Chinese people’s perception of both generality and particularity as well as principles and flexibility. It also shows their methodology in the application of both.
The notion of adjusting one’s actions to the “times” comes from The Book of Changes. The “times” refer to the opportunities or chances that present themselves as human activities progress. In the circumstances determined by the times, one should choose correspondingly suitable methods of handling affairs. The appearance and disappearance of opportunities and chances, and their impact on human affairs reflect the principles of the way of heaven and human affairs. People should recognize and keep pace with the change of the times and adapt in agreement with the times.
In the context of this term, “laws” refers to the administrative edicts of a ruler as well as institutions and laws. “Times” refers primarily to the prevailing social conditions. “Rites” mainly refer to a society’s moral norms and codes of conduct. In addition to social conventions and mores, “customs” also include popular sentiment. This expression means since everything is constantly changing and evolving, institutions, laws and rites must change correspondingly. It opposes being bound by tradition, favors innovation and change, and espouses the basic principle that a country’s governance should follow the times and respond to popular will. This is an example of the concept of “going with the times” contained in The Book of Changes, and it also resonates with the concept of “putting the people first” advocated by Confucianism.
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