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Weapons are tools of death; war is wicked and against morality. The original meaning of bing (兵) is “weapon” and is extended to mean “army”; zheng (争) means “conflict” and “struggle” and here means “war”; nide (逆德) means inhuman, contrary to benevolence and compassion. The ancient Chinese, including military strategists, all considered the use of force and war fearsome, only to be employed as a last resort, and that even if military force was deployed, the principles of benevolence and righteousness should be adhered to. This is another expression of high respect Chinese have for benevolence and enlightenment in the spirit of upholding peace as embodied in the idea of wen.
The term has two different meanings. One is an individual’s fine moral character, or his proper conduct in society. At first de (德) was only related to an individual’s behavior, referring to his external moral conduct. Later, it also referred to something that combined external behavior with internal emotions and moral consciousness. The other meaning of de refers to the special laws and features obtained from Dao, or the physical manifestation of the hidden and formless Dao, as well as the internal basis for the origination and existence of all things.
Opposition to unjust warfare is one of the basic concepts in the Mohist School of thought. It regards immoral and aggressive wars as acutely harmful to society. Not only does the country being attacked suffer great damage, the people of the country that starts the war also suffer serious casualties and property losses. Therefore, Mohists held that unjust wars should be prohibited. They took specific measures to prevent aggressive wars between nations, and conducted research into defensive tactics and armaments.
This is a concrete embodiment of ancient Chinese philosopher Laozi’s concept of shourou (守 maintain; 柔 tenderness, gentleness). Laozi believed that every object has two sides, firmness as well as tenderness, strength as well as weakness. These two sides are not absolute, but under certain conditions, they can transform into the other. However, in the long run, things that appear to be firm and strong have in actuality reached its optimum, whereas things that are seemingly tender and weak are still full of vitality and vigor, and can escalate even further, just as those states which rely on force and flaunt their superiority everywhere will ultimately move towards their own destruction. This tells us that, in governing a state, or in managing interpersonal relations, one should never be overly staunch, and should not bully the weak. Instead, one should conquer the unyielding with gentleness, be firm but gentle, and tamper force with mercy, and only then can stability and harmony be achieved.
The one who is benevolent is invincible. The benevolent refers to a ruler who has the virtue of benevolence or to a state with benevolent rule. In terms of political affairs, benevolence manifests itself as benevolent governance based on love and care for the people, use of penalties with restraint, lighter taxes, and benefiting the people to the greatest extent possible. In this way, the ruler will gain the support of the people and achieve unshakeable unity of will among his subjects and himself, so that the state will be invincible. The underlying principle is that a state’s source of strength lies in winning the hearts and minds of its people; if only the people are cared for, will the state be able to draw strength from this source.
Those in power should cultivate their own virtue, thus improving their moral character, conduct government affairs according to moral principles, and arrange for the people to live in peace. Strengthening the army means enhancing military might through training and discipline. However, the aim is not to threaten others with overwhelming might to obtain advantages but to maintain sufficient strength under moral standards to safeguard social stability and the interests of the people, using armed strength in a reasonable way on the basis of “cultivating virtue.”
This term suggests that when there is a good cause to use military force, the troops will be high in morale and valiant in fighting. The word shi (师) here is a general term for all military forces and operations. The word zhi (直) means a just cause. The word zhuang (壮) means powerful troops. The Chinese nation has always been wary of waging wars, believing that a war should be fought only for a just cause and that an army fighting for such a cause will have high morale and win the war.
To wage a war, one must have a legitimate cause, just as we ought to have such a reason in doing all things. The term has two meanings. The first is that moral justification is a source of strength when waging a war. With moral justification, the troops will have high morale and strength in fighting. Without it, it would be difficult to command the troops. The second meaning is that war must not be waged without a just cause. Greed or anger should not be allowed to lead to militarism and aggression. The underlying notion of this concept is that war can only be fought with a just cause, which represents the spirit of civilization.
This expression refers to pursuing conciliatory and benevolent policies and offering benefits to tribes and groups in remote areas. It was a political concept adopted by successive governments led mostly by the Han people in their relations with other ethnic groups, tribes in remote areas not yet directly under their rule, and foreign states. It also represented an important component of the theory of winning over others by virtue. China was, as it is today, a multi-ethnic country. The Han-led government ruled over a large territory and believed that they had an advanced culture. They usually took a conciliatory approach based on the Confucian concept of benevolence in dealing with the tribes and populations in remote regions, rather than conquering them by force, with the goal of placating them and winning their allegiance.
This is an ancient Chinese belief on the role of war. The first “war” means a just war, the second an unjust one. A just war is waged to resist a war that has been forced upon one. It is not of one’s choosing, but is fought to defend the country and the people from imposed violence, in order to ultimately end the war and restore peace and stability. It expresses the “civil” spirit of the Chinese nation that believes in justice and peace. It is similar in meaning to “stopping war is a true craft of war.”
To be able to stop war is a true craft of war. This famous military view was first raised by King Zhuang of Chu（？-591 BC） in the Spring and Autumn Period, on the basis of the structure of the Chinese character wu (武). Wu is composed of zhi (止), which means to stop; and ge (戈), which means dagger-axe or weapons and is used here in the metaphorical sense of warfare. To interpret wu as stopping war was consistent with the cultural characteristics of Chinese characters. It also expresses the Chinese people’s thinking of using military means to stop violence and their love of peace and opposition to war.
This expression refers to pursuing conciliatory and benevolent policies and offering benefits to tribes and groups in remote areas. It was a political concept adopted by successive governments led mostly by the Han people in their relations with other ethnic groups, tribes in remote areas not yet directly under their rule, and foreign states. It also represented an important component of the theory of winning over others by virtue. China was, as it is today, a multi-ethnic country. The Han-led government ruled over a large territory and believed that they had an advanced culture. They usually took a conciliatory approach based on the Confucian concept of benevolence in dealing with the tribes and populations in remote regions, rather than conquering them by force, with the goal of placating them and winning their allegiance.
A state that has a strong army but acts without righteousness is bound to be destructive. Since ancient times, all rulers with high ideals have pursued a wealthy state and a strong army. However, there is a more important principle than this, i.e., the principle of righteousness which is a supreme ethical pursuit of the Chinese nation that is above all material interests. A strong army that practices no righteousness is bound to bring harm.
Relying on moral strength will bring prosperity, whereas relying on violence will bring doom. The saying is described in The Book of History (as cited in Records of the Historian). De (德) refers to morals, grace, and integrity. Li (力) refers to coercion, violence, and military power. Under the influence of the political and ethical principles of the Confucian school, since ancient times the Chinese people have been advocating benevolent governance virtue (winning over people with benevolence) as opposed to rule by force (wielding power over people), believing that only by relying on benevolence can the ruler hope to win people’s hearts and minds, resulting therefore in a positive synergy that brings about prosperity. Rule by force, on the other hand, can merely coerce people into submission, but cannot achieve genuine and lasting harmony and unity. This is true not only in managing an entity or governing a country, but also in handling relationships among countries. As a principle for managing international relations, the term suggests that wanton engagement in military action or attempting to completely dominate others are incompatible with the development of civilization. Only by observing moral principles and trusting one another can sustainable peace and security be achieved in the world.
When there are armed conflicts, military action is only supplementary to good rule, which is the basis for unity and governance. Wu (武) means armed force or military means, and wen (文) means benevolent rule and edification. This notion was first proposed by the military strategist Yuliaozi of the Warring States Period. He said that how well plants grow depends more on the quality of the seeds than on the skill and care by the farmer. He used this analogy to illustrate the relationship between using military force and benevolent rule to unify and govern the state. To ensure long term peaceful governance over an obeying population depends on benevolent and enlightened rule, with military means only as a supplement. This is one of the earliest descriptions of the relationship between politics and military: the army is always subordinate to the politics, and serves the politics.
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