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The original meaning of li (理) was the texture of jade; later it was extended to contain three meanings: (1) the physical forms or proprieties of things, such as length, size, shape, tensile strength, weight, and color; (2) the universal laws followed by all things and beings; and (3) the original source or ontological existence of things. The last two meanings are similar to those of dao. Scholars of the Song and Ming dynasties were particularly interested in describing and explaining the philosophy known as li (理), and considered it as the highest realm, giving rise to the School of Principle which dominated academic thought in the period from the Song to the Ming dynasties.
The term means the universal law observed by all things in heaven and on earth as well as by human society. Confucian scholars in the Song and Ming dynasties held that the essence of heaven was natural law, and they regarded natural law as the realm of ultimate significance. Natural law is the essence or the source of things, deciding the inherent nature of humans and things. It is the law of nature and the foundation of moral conduct in the human society. Natural law transcends visible, concrete things, but it also exists in each concrete thing. In terms of human nature, natural law expresses itself in the innate good nature one is bestowed upon by heaven, as opposed to “human desire.”
This term means the laws that determine the physical features of plains, mountains and rivers. The term is from The Book of Changes, and it means that the uneven topography of the land, and the direction of rivers and mountains are all determined by certain constant laws. The ancient Chinese believed that both human relationships and all things in the universe are governed by the same laws, and so by observing and following these laws, people can establish social order. In later ages, the term came to cover production, transportation, human settlement and the economic activities affected by the natural environment.
The term originally refers to the texture of muscle, and later by extension it refers to well-organized principles in things. As a literary term, it was first used by Weng Fanggang (1733-1818), a Qing-dynasty scholar, to refer to two aspects: yili (义理 reasoning) and wenli (文理 structure). The former is about views or reasoning , primarily concerning Confucian thinking and learning expressed in poetry; whereas the latter represents texture of poetry, especially poetic structures, metrical schemes and rhythms, and other techniques of writing. Scholars of the Xingling School (School of Inner Self ) of the Ming and Qing dynasties advocated rejecting dogmatic guidelines and expressing one’s emotions and thoughts in literary works, while adherents of the Shenyun School (School of Elegant Subtlety) believed in ethereal beauty and implicitness expressed through poetry. Criticizing both literary trends, Weng promoted the principles and techniques of the Song-dynasty poetry. In terms of yili, he emphasized the need to follow classical Confucian tradition and erudition. In terms of wenli, he advocated exquisite intricacy, attention to details, and graceful structures with a great many variations, as well as the need to convey a substantive message. During the reign of Emperor Qianlong (1736-1795) and Emperor Jiaqing (1796-1820) of the Qing Dynasty, a boom in the study of Confucian classics and textual research led to the emergence of the Jili School (School of Reasoning and Structure). Weng advocated integration of form and content in poetry, thus promoting the development of poetry based on classic learning. However, his overemphasis on classic scholarliness in poetry was criticized by scholars of both his age and later generations.
Being a supreme domain in terms of principle, li (理) exists in different things and manifests itself in different forms. “There is but one li, which exists in diverse forms” – this is an important way in which the Song- and Ming-dynasty thinkers viewed the forms in which li exists. As li has different meanings, its one-and- diverse composition is also interpreted in different ways. First, as the origin of universe in an ontological sense, li runs through all things. The li of each thing is not a part of li, rather, it is endowed with the full meaning of li. Second, representing the universal law governing all things, the universal li expresses itself in the form of different guiding principles in specific things. The li of each thing or being is a concrete expression of the universal li. The concept of li being one and same ensures unity of the world, whereas its diversity provides the basis for multifarious things and hierarchical order.
This term means to thoroughly explore the fundamental nature and pervasive laws of humanity and all things, which includes the exploration of natural phenomena, cosmic laws, and local events. We must fully understand how all things are connected, so that we can contribute to all things flourishing in their roles. Neo-Confucian scholars of the Song Dynasty took this conception as a fundamental means to understand the world, to cultivate one’s morality, and to know in depth the principles of heaven. Wang Yangming (1472-1529) held that laws and nature are not two different things. To explore the laws of things means to find out their nature. Ancient Chinese believed that to understand the world and oneself, and to reform the world and improve oneself are a process of interaction and unity. Only when such process advances can the harmony between humanity and all things be accomplished.
The term, a shortened version of ren tong ci xin, xin tong ci li (人同此心，心同此理), was first proposed by Lu Jiuyuan (1139-1193). Xinxue (心学), the Neo-Confucian philosophy of Lu Jiuyuan and Wang Yangming (1472-1529)，teaches that the innate knowledge of the human mind and the principles of the universe are in liaison, that truth transcends time and space, that the mind and the dao are universal for all mankind. All human beings, past and present, east or west, have a common innate knowing of truth and morality, and this is the basis for a common human identity. As Western and Chinese cultures came into increasing contact after the Ming and Qing dynasties, this expression was an attempt to explain that, even though East and West differed in their academic cultures and much of the new knowledge differed in form from Chinese epistemology, their fundamental thinking could be reconciled.
In its original meaning, dao (道) is the way or path taken by people. It has three extended meanings: 1) the general laws followed by things in different spheres, e.g. the natural order by which the sun, moon and stars move is called the way of heaven; the rules that govern human activities are the way of man; 2) the universal patterns followed by all things and beings; and 3) the original source or ontological existence of things, which transcends form and constitutes the basis for the birth and existence of all things, and for the activities of human beings. In their respective discussions of Dao, Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism imbue it with very different connotations. While benevolence, righteousness, social norms, and music education form the basic content of the Confucian Dao, the Buddhist and Daoist Dao tends to emphasize kong (空 emptiness) and wu (无 void).
The term has three meanings. First, it indicates the original essence of all things. It is another name for dao (way). It is also referred to as taiyi (the supreme one). Second, it refers to the state of chaos before the separation of heaven and earth. The one was divided and transformed into heaven and earth. All things in heaven and on earth were produced from this Chaotic entity. Third, it indicates the unity of things, as opposed to “many” or “two.” The idea is to emphasize the unity among things which are different or opposite.
Qi (vital force) has a material existence independent of subjective consciousness and is the basic element of all physical beings. It is also the basis for the birth and existence of life and spirit. In addition, some thinkers have given a moral attribute to qi. Qi is in constant motion and change, and has no specific shape. Its concentration gives birth to a thing and its evaporation signals the end of that thing. Qi permeates all physical beings and their surroundings. Qi, as a philosophical concept, is different from what is commonly understood by the word qi (气), namely, air. Although things in liquid or solid form are different from things in air form, from the perspective of the ancient Chinese philosophy, their formation and existence are the results of the concentration of qi.
The term means the primal source from which all things originate, both animate and inanimate, including human beings. Yuan (元) manifests itself in different forms. In the Han Dynasty, it was considered a kind of primal physical material that both produced and made up the myriad things of the world. The Book of Changes divides yuan into two primal sources: the heavenly source which gives birth to the sun, moon, and stars, and the earthly source which creates all other things on earth. In The Spring and Autumn Annals, the term refers to the first year in its chronologies, symbolizing the start of a new historical period, and serving as the manifestation in the human world of the natural process in which things begin, end, and are replaced.
Sincerity is among the core concepts of the Confucian school of thought. Basically, it means truthfulness without deceit. Confucians believed that sincerity is the essence of the “way of heaven” or “principles of heaven,” a basis on which everything else is built. At the same time, sincerity is also the root and foundation of morality. All moral deeds must be conducted on the basis of sincerity from the bottom of the heart. Otherwise, they are nothing but pretensions. The Doctrine of the Mean maintains, “Nothing can be achieved without sincerity.” Sages are sincere by nature. Therefore, their words and deeds are naturally consistent with the “way of heaven” and the “principles of heaven.” Junzi (a man of virtue) upholds sincerity as his goal for moral attainment and an approach to achieving the “way of heaven” and the “principles of heaven.”
Taiji (the supreme ultimate) has three different meanings. First, it refers to the origin of the world. The ancient Chinese saw it either as qi (vital force) or yuanqi (primordial vital force) that permeates the chaotic world, or as a universal principle, i.e. dao or li (理), or as wu (无). Second, it is used as a term of divination, referring to the initial state before divinatory numbers, the odd number one (written as —) and the even number two (written as – –), are applied or before the yarrow stems are divided. Divination is conducted on the basis of taiji. Third, it stands for the highest point or boundary of space.
The way of heaven refers to the basic rule governing the existence and changes of all things between heaven and earth （as opposed to the “way of man”）. Ancient Chinese interpreted the “way of heaven” in different ways. First, some believed that “the way of heaven,” especially the celestial phenomena relating to the movements of the sun, the moon, and the stars, foretell or dictate the success or failure of human affairs. In ancient times, designated officials predicted human affairs through observing celestial phenomena. Second, some believed that “the way of heaven” was the source or the basis of man’s moral conduct and of orderly human relations. One should comply with “the way of heaven,” in both words and deeds, so should human relations； and people should recognize and develop the moral nature bestowed upon by heaven so as to gain access to “the way of heaven.” Third, still others thought that there were no particular correlations between “the way of heaven” on the one hand, and moral conduct in the human world, human relations, as well as misfortune and fortune in human affairs on the other.
Humans are born with innate conscience and the ability to know and act upon it. The term liangzhi (良知) was first used by Mencius（372？-289 BC), who believed that what man knew by instinct was liangzhi (knowledge of goodness). The term includes ren (仁), i.e. love for one’s parents and yi (义), i.e. respect for one’s elder brothers. The concept is an important component of Mencius’ belief in the innate goodness of human nature. The Ming-dynasty philosopher Wang Yangming（1472-1529） raised the idea of “attaining liangzhi.” He extended the Mencius’ liangzhi to mean the principles of heaven, maintaining that all things under heaven and their laws were covered by liangzhi. With liangzhi being extended to its fullest (through self-cultivation and moral practice), it is possible to know and put in practice all moral truths.
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