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The term means the universal law observed by all things in heaven and on earth as well as by human society. Confucian scholars in the Song and Ming dynasties held that the essence of heaven was natural law, and they regarded natural law as the realm of ultimate significance. Natural law is the essence or the source of things, deciding the inherent nature of humans and things. It is the law of nature and the foundation of moral conduct in the human society. Natural law transcends visible, concrete things, but it also exists in each concrete thing. In terms of human nature, natural law expresses itself in the innate good nature one is bestowed upon by heaven, as opposed to “human desire.”
Tian (天) is a sacred and fundamental concept in ancient Chinese philosophy. It has three different meanings. The first is the physical sky or the entirety of nature (not including human society), the operations of which manifest certain laws and order. The second refers to a spiritual being, which possesses an anthropomorphic will and governs everything in the universe. The third denotes the universal law, which is observed by all things and beings, and which is also the basis of human nature, morality, and social and political orders.
The original meaning of li (理) was the texture of jade; later it was extended to contain three meanings: (1) the physical forms or proprieties of things, such as length, size, shape, tensile strength, weight, and color; (2) the universal laws followed by all things and beings; and (3) the original source or ontological existence of things. The last two meanings are similar to those of dao. Scholars of the Song and Ming dynasties were particularly interested in describing and explaining the philosophy known as li (理), and considered it as the highest realm, giving rise to the School of Principle which dominated academic thought in the period from the Song to the Ming dynasties.
Qi (vital force) has a material existence independent of subjective consciousness and is the basic element of all physical beings. It is also the basis for the birth and existence of life and spirit. In addition, some thinkers have given a moral attribute to qi. Qi is in constant motion and change, and has no specific shape. Its concentration gives birth to a thing and its evaporation signals the end of that thing. Qi permeates all physical beings and their surroundings. Qi, as a philosophical concept, is different from what is commonly understood by the word qi (气), namely, air. Although things in liquid or solid form are different from things in air form, from the perspective of the ancient Chinese philosophy, their formation and existence are the results of the concentration of qi.
Xing (性) mainly referred to human nature in ancient times. The concept of xing has two essential points. First, it refers to the inherent nature of all things, not as a result of nurture. Second, it refers to the common nature of certain kind of things, not the nature of individual things of that kind. Similarly, human nature, too, has two meanings. First, it refers to inherent attributes all people share, including physical features, desires, and consciousness. Second, it is the essential and distinct attribute that distinguishes people from birds and beasts, in other words, human’s moral nature. Scholars throughout history held varied views over the question whether human nature was good or evil. Some believed it was good. Some thought it was evil. Some held that it was neither good nor evil. Some held that human nature could be both good and evil in the same person. Some thought that human nature was good in some people, but evil in others.
This term refers to the yearning for external objects. Yu(欲) is the desire for external things such as food and beauty. This desire is a natural instinct，so it should be satisfied to an appropriate degree and be restrained at the same time. Excessive desire can be harmful to a person, create disputes between people and cause disorder. Desire also refers to the pursuit of virtue, something that is inherent part of human instinct.
Sincerity is among the core concepts of the Confucian school of thought. Basically, it means truthfulness without deceit. Confucians believed that sincerity is the essence of the “way of heaven” or “principles of heaven,” a basis on which everything else is built. At the same time, sincerity is also the root and foundation of morality. All moral deeds must be conducted on the basis of sincerity from the bottom of the heart. Otherwise, they are nothing but pretensions. The Doctrine of the Mean maintains, “Nothing can be achieved without sincerity.” Sages are sincere by nature. Therefore, their words and deeds are naturally consistent with the “way of heaven” and the “principles of heaven.” Junzi (a man of virtue) upholds sincerity as his goal for moral attainment and an approach to achieving the “way of heaven” and the “principles of heaven.”
Humans are born with innate conscience and the ability to know and act upon it. The term liangzhi (良知) was first used by Mencius（372？-289 BC), who believed that what man knew by instinct was liangzhi (knowledge of goodness). The term includes ren (仁), i.e. love for one’s parents and yi (义), i.e. respect for one’s elder brothers. The concept is an important component of Mencius’ belief in the innate goodness of human nature. The Ming-dynasty philosopher Wang Yangming（1472-1529） raised the idea of “attaining liangzhi.” He extended the Mencius’ liangzhi to mean the principles of heaven, maintaining that all things under heaven and their laws were covered by liangzhi. With liangzhi being extended to its fullest (through self-cultivation and moral practice), it is possible to know and put in practice all moral truths.
The notion of acting in accordance with human nature first appears in The Doctrine of the Mean, a section of The Book of Rites. According to this text, all humans possess an innate virtuous quality that originates from heaven. People should follow and give full play to this heavenly bestowed virtue and realize it in their words and deeds. Behavior in keeping with this inherent nature constitutes a person’s virtuous quality. Later scholars regarded this virtuous nature as the heavenly law manifested in human nature. Acting in accordance with human nature was therefore seen as following the heavenly law.
The term, a shortened version of ren tong ci xin, xin tong ci li (人同此心，心同此理), was first proposed by Lu Jiuyuan (1139-1193). Xinxue (心学), the Neo-Confucian philosophy of Lu Jiuyuan and Wang Yangming (1472-1529)，teaches that the innate knowledge of the human mind and the principles of the universe are in liaison, that truth transcends time and space, that the mind and the dao are universal for all mankind. All human beings, past and present, east or west, have a common innate knowing of truth and morality, and this is the basis for a common human identity. As Western and Chinese cultures came into increasing contact after the Ming and Qing dynasties, this expression was an attempt to explain that, even though East and West differed in their academic cultures and much of the new knowledge differed in form from Chinese epistemology, their fundamental thinking could be reconciled.
This term means to thoroughly explore the fundamental nature and pervasive laws of humanity and all things, which includes the exploration of natural phenomena, cosmic laws, and local events. We must fully understand how all things are connected, so that we can contribute to all things flourishing in their roles. Neo-Confucian scholars of the Song Dynasty took this conception as a fundamental means to understand the world, to cultivate one’s morality, and to know in depth the principles of heaven. Wang Yangming (1472-1529) held that laws and nature are not two different things. To explore the laws of things means to find out their nature. Ancient Chinese believed that to understand the world and oneself, and to reform the world and improve oneself are a process of interaction and unity. Only when such process advances can the harmony between humanity and all things be accomplished.
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