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A belief that events are not predetermined and a denial of fate is a basic component of Mohist thought. Mozi (468?-376 BC) proposed that poverty and turmoil are brought about by our own acts rather than predetermined by fate. Blaming human affairs on fate is nothing other than relieving actors of responsibility for their actions and will only bring chaos to the state and poverty to the people. Only by embracing ethical principles such as impartial love and by our own efforts, can we gain practical benefits.
The earliest meaning of the term was mandate of heaven, that is, the intentions and instructions that heaven expressed to humans. The implication was that Heaven meted out rewards and punishments on human beings as their moral conduct deserved. The mandate of heaven was considered an irresistible force that determined dynastic changes, the rise and fall of nations, and even the fate of ordinary people. Later, the link with Heaven became weaker; instead, the unavoidable destiny or fate prevailed. For human beings, the term implies the external limits that determine what is possible and what is not. In one sense, it expresses the helplessness of human beings.
The term means order and bestowment from Heaven. “Mandate of heaven” mainly contains three different meanings: The first is the order of heaven over human affairs. Such order first of all focuses on a change of the supreme ruler’s authority: Heaven empowers the virtuous to attack and replace a ruler who has lost his virtue, and thus enjoy the highest and unsurpassed power and benefits. Secondly, mandate of heaven means fate, which is irresistible and imposes limit on human power. Thirdly, the term indicates the natural disposition bestowed by heaven upon human being. According to The Doctrine of the Mean, “Mandate of heaven endows one with his nature.” Song-dynasty Confucian scholars developed this idea, proposing that human nature was the “nature of mandate of heaven,” that is, the inherent pure and good nature one receives from heaven.
The term means taking power from a ruler. Ge (革) means to change or remove. Ming (命) first referred to the mandate of heaven and later came to mean a ruler’s decrees and his mandate to rule. Changing the mandate usually involves replacing a ruler and a change of dynasty, in other words, overthrowing an old regime and establishing a new one. People in ancient China believed that a ruler’s mandate to rule was ordained by Heaven and therefore any change of the mandate should in essence be carried out in response to the will of Heaven. However, change is a basic law of the universe, and the removal of a ruler’s mandate is a specific expression of this law. The legitimacy and success of such change depend on whether those who lead the change do so in response to the will of heaven and the popular desire of the people. In modern times, the term is used as an expression meaning revolution, denoting major social, political or economic changes.
Rejoice in complying with the way of heaven and recognize the limitations set by the mandate of heaven. This concept originates from The Book of Changes. The way of heaven regulates human affairs and its mandate defines the limit of human power. This is beyond human capacity to change and must be faced with calm, which man must understand and face with calm. While people are subject to regulation and limitation by Heaven and its mandate, they can cultivate their virtue and make great achievements through continuous efforts. That’s why people should rejoice in complying with Heaven and its mandate.
Universal love, equal affection for all individuals, is a basic concept of the Mohist School of thought, as opposed to the principle of differentiated love advocated by the Confucian School. Universal love emphasizes that you should love others as you love yourself, and love others’ relatives and people of other states as you love your own so that all people would love one another equally. This principle of affection has no regard for blood ties or social status. It is an affection that is exercised equally without differentiating between individuals, families, or nations. If such a principle could be realized, we could avoid conflicts between persons, clans, or nations and bring equal benefit to all.
Opposition to unjust warfare is one of the basic concepts in the Mohist School of thought. It regards immoral and aggressive wars as acutely harmful to society. Not only does the country being attacked suffer great damage, the people of the country that starts the war also suffer serious casualties and property losses. Therefore, Mohists held that unjust wars should be prohibited. They took specific measures to prevent aggressive wars between nations, and conducted research into defensive tactics and armaments.
In ancient China, many schools of thought advocated “exalting the worthy” or similar ideas. They asked those in power to employ worthy and able men and make effective use of them in governance by assigning them positions and responsibilities corresponding to their virtues. Virtue and talent were to be the first and foremost criterion in selecting officials. To the Confucians, empowering the virtuous and able was a useful complement to loving and caring for kinsmen. To the Mohists, empowering the virtuous and able was an important prerequisite for governance that “conforms upwardly.”
This term means conforming to the superior in applying standards for right and wrong. It is one of the basic positions of the Mohist school. Mozi （468？-376 BC) believed that in the absence of a state and political power, confusion over right and wrong would give rise to conflict and fighting, causing harm to the antagonists. Therefore, he held that worthy and talented men should be the Son of Heaven and his officials at various levels. Everyone should adopt their superior’s standards for judging right and wrong in words and deeds, and ultimately follow the ruler’s standards. The sovereign ruler himself should submit to Heaven’s will. The Mohists believed that conforming upwardly was an important means to ensure great order under heaven.
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